Date: December 5, 2025
As the year 2025 draws to a close, the global stage remains a dynamic tapestry of political maneuverings, economic shifts, technological leaps, and profound societal debates. From persistent geopolitical conflicts to groundbreaking cultural achievements and pivotal policy decisions, December 2025 highlights a world grappling with complex challenges and embracing transformative progress. This post delves into the ten most significant news stories currently shaping our planet, offering an unbiased examination of their backstories, immediate impacts, and underlying root causes, providing a comprehensive understanding of the forces at play.
Overview
The dawn of December 2025 finds humanity at a critical juncture, navigating a confluence of events that promise to redefine international relations, economic paradigms, ethical frameworks, and cultural landscapes. This comprehensive overview meticulously dissects the most compelling narratives emerging from every corner of the globe. From the protracted diplomatic ballet surrounding the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the unsettling return of protectionist economic policies to a groundbreaking Australian social media ban for minors and the ethical quandaries posed by accelerating AI development, each story is a testament to the intricate interconnectedness of our modern world. We will explore the deep historical roots and contemporary forces that underpin these developments, striving to provide clarity and context in an increasingly complex global environment.
1. US-Backed Peace Proposal for Ukraine Faces Hurdles as Russia Expresses Disagreement and Ukraine Seeks Revisions
Origin: USA, Russia, Ukraine, Europe
In December 2025, a significant diplomatic push spearheaded by the United States to broker peace in the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict has encountered considerable obstacles. A detailed 28-point peace plan, developed and refined through various international discussions, has been presented to both Moscow and Kyiv.
Background: The roots of the conflict are deeply embedded in historical, cultural, and geopolitical complexities. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine’s increasing alignment with Western institutions like NATO and the European Union was viewed by Russia as a direct threat to its security interests. The conflict escalated dramatically in February 2022 with Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine, following the 2014 annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in the Donbas region. The war has led to immense human suffering, displacement, and a profound geopolitical realignment. International efforts to mediate a resolution have been continuous but challenging, given the fundamental disagreements over territorial integrity, sovereignty, and security guarantees. Previous attempts at ceasefires and peace talks, such as the Minsk agreements, ultimately failed to bring a lasting resolution, highlighting the deep-seated mistrust and conflicting objectives of the involved parties. The geopolitical stakes are extraordinarily high, with the conflict impacting global energy markets, food security, and the broader international security architecture. European nations, particularly those bordering Russia, view the conflict as an existential threat to regional stability, leading to unprecedented levels of military and financial support for Ukraine and a reassessment of their own defense strategies.
Current Status & Root Causes: While the US proposal aims to create a framework for de-escalation and a lasting peace, both Russia and Ukraine have expressed reservations. Russian President Vladimir Putin publicly stated that there are “points he can’t agree to,” without elaborating on specifics, signaling Moscow’s continued demands for security assurances, a non-aligned Ukraine, and recognition of certain territorial changes that have occurred since 2014 and 2022. Kyiv, on the other hand, has reportedly criticized parts of the plan, fearing that some provisions might unduly favor Russia or compromise Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, particularly concerning its internationally recognized borders. President Zelenskyy’s government has consistently maintained that any peace deal must respect Ukraine’s territorial integrity and ensure its long-term security. European allies, while supporting peace efforts, are also deeply invested in maintaining military aid to Ukraine and exploring ways to utilize frozen Russian assets for Ukrainian reconstruction, adding another layer of complexity to the negotiations. The core issue remains Russia’s security demands versus Ukraine’s right to self-determination and territorial integrity, with the US attempting to bridge this chasm. The long-term stability of Europe and the credibility of international law hinge on the outcome of these delicate and often fraught diplomatic discussions. The divergent historical narratives and national security doctrines of both Russia and Ukraine form the bedrock of this intractable conflict, making any compromise extremely difficult to achieve without a fundamental shift in perception or power dynamics.
2. Global Economic Landscape Shaken by Resurgence of Tariffs and Trade Tensions Under New US Presidential Term
Origin: USA, Global
The global economic sphere is currently navigating a period of heightened uncertainty, largely attributed to the reintroduction of significant tariffs and protectionist trade policies by the newly inaugurated US administration. This strategic shift is reverberating across international markets and supply chains.
Background: The imposition of tariffs has historically been a tool of economic statecraft, used to protect domestic industries, influence trade balances, or exert geopolitical pressure. Previous US administrations have utilized tariffs to address perceived unfair trade practices, intellectual property theft, and national security concerns, particularly concerning major trading partners such as China and the European Union. The underlying philosophy often centers on prioritizing national economic interests and fostering domestic production, a policy stance often referred to as economic nationalism or protectionism, even if it leads to short-term disruptions in global trade. This approach contrasts sharply with the principles of free trade that have largely dominated global economic policy since the mid-20th century. Historical precedents demonstrate that trade wars can lead to higher consumer prices, reduced competitiveness for export-oriented industries, and a general slowdown in global economic growth, as seen during the Great Depression era. The complexities of modern global supply chains mean that tariffs on one product can have cascading effects across multiple industries and geographies, affecting everything from raw material costs to final consumer prices.
Current Status & Root Causes: As of December 2025, the impact of these renewed tariffs is a central discussion point among economists and policymakers worldwide. Industries reliant on international trade, from manufacturing to agriculture and technology, are bracing for increased input costs, potential supply chain reconfigurations as companies seek to avoid tariffs, and ultimately, reduced consumer demand in certain sectors due due to higher prices. Trading partners are evaluating potential retaliatory measures, threatening to ignite a broader global trade war. The primary root cause of this development is a strategic pivot towards economic nationalism, driven by a desire to strengthen domestic industries, safeguard American jobs, and recalibrate trade relationships perceived as imbalanced or exploitative. This policy is often underpinned by a belief that decades of globalization have hollowed out domestic manufacturing capabilities and led to a loss of economic sovereignty. This approach often leads to retaliatory measures from affected countries, creating a cycle of trade disputes that can dampen global economic growth and foster an environment of instability. The long-term implications for international trade agreements, such as those facilitated by the World Trade Organization, and multinational corporations remain a significant concern, potentially leading to a fragmentation of global markets and a more insular approach to economic development among major powers.
3. Australia Implements Landmark Social Media Ban for Under 16s, Sparking Global Debate on Digital Age Restrictions
Origin: Australia
Australia is set to enact a pioneering legislative change on December 10, 2025, prohibiting individuals under the age of 16 from accessing social media platforms. This bold move has ignited a worldwide conversation concerning the appropriate age for digital engagement and governmental oversight of online environments.
Background: Concerns about the pervasive influence of social media on the mental health, well-being, and developmental stages of children and adolescents have been escalating globally for several years. Numerous studies and reports from child psychologists, pediatricians, and mental health organizations have linked excessive social media use to increased rates of anxiety, depression, body dissatisfaction, cyberbullying, sleep disturbances, and diminished academic performance among young people. Furthermore, issues such as exposure to inappropriate content, data privacy breaches, the manipulative design of algorithms, and the inherently addictive nature of these platforms have prompted urgent calls for greater regulation from parents, educators, and public health advocates. While some countries have explored various measures, including educational campaigns, stricter parental control tools, and industry self-regulation, a nationwide ban for a specific age group represents a more stringent and direct approach, signaling a major policy shift in how governments view their role in protecting minors in the digital age. The debate often centers on balancing freedom of expression and access to information with the imperative to safeguard children’s well-being.
Current Status & Root Causes: The Australian government’s decision stems from a growing body of evidence and public outcry highlighting the detrimental effects of unrestricted social media access on minors. The ban, effective next week, is intended as a protective measure, aiming to shield younger demographics from online harms and foster healthier developmental pathways by encouraging offline activities and in-person social interactions. While lauded by many as a necessary step to address a pressing public health crisis, it has also sparked intense debates regarding its enforceability, the practicalities of age verification, potential implications for digital literacy development, and the precise balance between parental responsibility and state intervention in children’s upbringing. Critics argue that such bans might drive younger users to less regulated, clandestine platforms, making them even more vulnerable. The root cause is a societal reckoning with the unintended and often harmful consequences of rapidly evolving digital technologies, coupled with a collective desire to safeguard the most vulnerable members of society from their potential downsides. This policy could set a significant precedent for other nations contemplating similar protective measures, potentially leading to a global re-evaluation of how digital platforms are regulated concerning minors, and sparking innovation in ‘child-safe’ online environments.
4. Ongoing Gaza Conflict: UN Calls for Investigation Amidst Continued Air Strikes and Shelling, Highlighting Persistent Humanitarian Crisis
Origin: Israel, Palestine (Gaza), United Nations (International)
The humanitarian crisis in the Gaza Strip remains dire, with reports of continued air strikes and shelling dominating global headlines in early December 2025. The United Nations has issued an urgent call for an independent investigation into recent “horrific” events, underscoring the severe and ongoing impact on civilian populations.
Background: The conflict in Gaza is a deeply entrenched and complex issue, rooted in decades of Israeli-Palestinian territorial disputes, historical grievances, and competing national aspirations. The Gaza Strip, a densely populated Palestinian enclave, has been under an Israeli and Egyptian blockade for many years, leading to significant economic hardship, a collapsed infrastructure, and limited access to essential services and goods. Periodic escalations of violence have characterized the region, often triggered by specific incidents, retaliatory actions, or broader geopolitical shifts, and have a long history extending back to the creation of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent displacement of Palestinians. Each cycle of conflict results in a devastating loss of life, widespread destruction of homes and vital infrastructure, and further exacerbates the already dire humanitarian situation, placing immense pressure on international aid organizations and medical services. The underlying tensions are a mix of religious, historical, and territorial claims, further complicated by the presence of militant groups and ongoing security concerns for all parties.
Current Status & Root Causes: As of December 2025, the situation on the ground indicates continued military operations, with significant civilian casualties and displacement reported by humanitarian agencies. The UN’s call for an independent investigation reflects international alarm over potential violations of international humanitarian law, particularly concerning the protection of civilians and non-combatant infrastructure, and highlights the urgent need for accountability. International bodies and human rights organizations have consistently documented allegations of war crimes and excessive force from both sides. The root causes of the enduring conflict are multifaceted, encompassing the unresolved issue of Palestinian statehood and self-determination, Israeli security concerns in the face of militant threats, control over land and resources, and the deeply entrenched distrust and historical trauma on both sides. These factors contribute to a relentless cycle of violence that has proven resistant to numerous peace efforts and international mediations over decades, perpetuating a humanitarian tragedy and maintaining a state of chronic instability in the region. The lack of a comprehensive political solution that addresses the core grievances of both Israelis and Palestinians ensures the conflict’s tragic continuation.
5. Macron’s Diplomatic Visit to China Focuses on Strengthening Trade Ties and Ukraine War Discussions
Origin: France, China
French President Emmanuel Macron has embarked on a high-stakes diplomatic visit to China, engaging in crucial talks with President Xi Jinping. The agenda is multifaceted, aiming to bolster bilateral trade relations while also addressing the pressing geopolitical issue of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.
Background: France and China share a significant economic relationship, with substantial trade volumes and investments across various sectors, from luxury goods to aerospace and technology. However, like many Western nations, France also seeks to balance economic engagement with concerns regarding human rights, fair trade practices, intellectual property rights, and China’s growing global political and military influence. On the geopolitical front, European leaders have consistently sought to engage China on the Ukraine war, given Beijing’s unique relationship with Moscow – a “no-limits” partnership declared shortly before the 2022 invasion – and its potential leverage in influencing a resolution. While China has maintained a public position of neutrality, its economic and political support for Russia, including increased trade and diplomatic backing, is a source of concern for Western allies who view it as indirectly prolonging the conflict and undermining international sanctions regimes. Macron’s visit follows a pattern of European leaders attempting to directly engage China on this critical issue, often with limited discernible shifts in Beijing’s policy.
Current Status & Root Causes: In December 2025, President Macron’s visit underscores Europe’s strategic interest in maintaining open lines of communication with Beijing, recognizing China’s indispensable role in global economics and politics. Discussions on trade likely centered on rebalancing economic partnerships, ensuring greater market access for French and European businesses, addressing issues of industrial overcapacity, and fostering investment in strategic sectors. Regarding Ukraine, Macron’s objective would be to encourage China to use its influence to de-escalate the conflict and support a just and lasting peace that respects Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, aligning with European security interests. This is particularly crucial given the stalled US-backed peace talks. The root causes for such diplomatic engagement lie in the intricate web of global economics and geopolitics: Europe’s reliance on China as a major trading partner and consumer market, China’s increasing role in global affairs as a rising superpower, and the collective international desire to find pathways to resolve major international conflicts like the war in Ukraine, even as fundamental differences in approach and national interests persist between democratic Europe and authoritarian China. These high-level dialogues are essential for managing complex relationships and preventing further geopolitical fragmentation.
6. UN and Partners Launch New Initiative to Transition Millions from Vulnerability to Opportunity
Origin: Global (United Nations)
The United Nations, in collaboration with its global partners, has announced a significant new initiative designed to empower millions of individuals worldwide, facilitating their transition from conditions of vulnerability to states of economic and social opportunity. This ambitious program seeks to address systemic issues leading to marginalization.
Background: For decades, the United Nations has been at the forefront of global efforts to combat poverty, reduce inequality, and promote sustainable development. Its various agencies and programs, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), UNICEF, the World Food Programme (WFP), and the UNHCR, work on the ground in numerous countries, addressing challenges ranging from famine and displacement to lack of education, healthcare, and economic prospects. The concept of “vulnerability to opportunity” recognizes that many individuals and communities are trapped in cycles of poverty and hardship due to a complex interplay of factors, including protracted conflicts, the escalating impacts of climate change, recurrent economic shocks, poor governance, and systemic discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, or other factors. These multifaceted challenges often lead to a lack of access to basic services, limited livelihood options, and heightened exposure to risks, perpetuating a state of chronic vulnerability for billions globally.
Current Status & Root Causes: Announced in early December 2025, this new initiative reflects a renewed commitment to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those focused on eradicating poverty (SDG 1), reducing inequalities (SDG 10), promoting decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), and fostering peace, justice, and strong institutions (SDG 16). The program likely involves multi-sectoral approaches, including significant investments in quality education and vocational training tailored to local labor markets, microfinance and small business development to boost entrepreneurship, sustainable infrastructure development (e.g., renewable energy, water sanitation), and strengthening social safety nets and healthcare systems. Crucially, it also aims to enhance governance and rule of law to create a more equitable environment. The root causes it aims to tackle are pervasive global challenges such as extreme poverty, lack of access to basic social services, conflict-induced displacement and refugee crises, climate-related disasters (droughts, floods), economic disenfranchisement, and systemic human rights abuses. By focusing on creating pathways to opportunity through comprehensive and integrated interventions, the initiative seeks to build resilience, foster long-term self-sufficiency, and ensure equitable development for vulnerable populations around the world, moving beyond emergency aid to sustainable empowerment.
7. Vatican Commission Affirms Traditional Stance: No Ordination of Women as Deacons
Origin: Vatican City
A much-anticipated declaration from a Vatican commission in December 2025 has affirmed the Catholic Church’s longstanding traditional position, stating that there will be no ordination of women as deacons. This decision concludes years of study and debate within the Church regarding the roles women can officially hold.
Background: The question of ordaining women to the diaconate, the first of the three Holy Orders (deacon, priest, bishop) in the Catholic Church, has been a significant point of discussion and reform advocacy within the Church for decades, if not centuries. Proponents of female deacons argue that women served as deacons in the early Church, as evidenced by historical texts and archaeological findings (e.g., references to Phoebe in Romans 16:1), and that reintroducing female deacons would address the pastoral needs of modern communities, recognize the significant contributions of women to the Church’s ministry, and address issues of gender inequality within its hierarchical structure. These advocates often point to the current practice of allowing married men to be ordained as permanent deacons. Opponents, however, maintain that the diaconate, even in its transitional form leading to the priesthood, is intrinsically linked to the male priesthood and the unbroken sacramental tradition that has historically been reserved for men, based on theological interpretations of Christ’s choice of male apostles. Two commissions were established by Pope Francis – one in 2016 and another in 2020 – to study the historical evidence and theological implications of women deacons, reflecting a willingness to consider the issue while navigating deeply entrenched doctrines and traditions.
Current Status & Root Causes: The recent decision by the Vatican commission, after extensive theological and historical review, indicates a reaffirmation of the Church’s current doctrinal understanding regarding Holy Orders. This ruling, while specific to the diaconate, implicitly influences the broader discussion about women’s ordination to the priesthood, which the Church has definitively closed as a possibility through previous papal pronouncements. The decision will likely disappoint many reform advocates and women’s groups within the Church who had hoped for a more inclusive approach, while being welcomed by those who adhere strictly to traditional interpretations of canon law, sacred tradition, and theology concerning the distinct roles of men and women in the Church. The root cause of this ongoing debate lies in the fundamental tension between historical traditions, theological interpretations of sacramental roles and the nature of the priesthood, and contemporary calls for greater inclusivity, gender equality, and recognition of women’s leadership within the Church’s institutional structures. The Vatican’s decision highlights its continued commitment to maintaining traditional theological boundaries regarding ordained ministry, despite evolving societal norms and internal pressures for change, thereby preserving a distinct identity for the Catholic clergy.
8. Four Nations Withdraw from Prestigious Eurovision Song Contest Amidst Unspecified Challenges
Origin: Europe (various countries)
In an unexpected development, four European nations have announced their withdrawal from the upcoming Eurovision Song Contest, a highly popular international music competition. The reasons for these withdrawals remain largely unspecified, leading to speculation regarding potential financial, political, or organizational issues.
Background: The Eurovision Song Contest, a cultural staple since its inception in 1956, brings together nations primarily from Europe, but also including Israel and Australia, in a celebrated display of musical talent, national pride, and often, quirky performances. Organized by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), participation in Eurovision is a significant undertaking for national broadcasters, requiring substantial financial investment for participation fees, elaborate staging, travel, and promotional activities. Withdrawals, while not entirely unprecedented in the contest’s long history, often occur due to a range of factors: severe budget cuts within national public service broadcasters, making participation economically unfeasible; changes in national broadcasting priorities; poor results in previous years leading to a lack of enthusiasm; or occasionally, political disagreements with the host country, the EBU, or broader geopolitical tensions that might make participation undesirable for certain nations. For example, countries have withdrawn due to conflicts, boycotts, or simply to take a break from the competition. The contest, despite its apolitical aspirations, has often found itself at the crossroads of European politics and cultural identity.
Current Status & Root Causes: As of December 2025, the news of four simultaneous withdrawals has generated considerable discussion among fans, national delegations, and within the media across Europe. While specific details from the withdrawing nations are scarce, leading to a vacuum filled by speculation, potential root causes could indeed range from severe budgetary constraints impacting public broadcasters struggling with funding in an evolving media landscape, to internal political disputes within these nations that divert resources or attention away from cultural events. It is also plausible that the withdrawals reflect dissatisfaction with the contest’s format, rules, the selection process, or the perceived political climate surrounding the event, particularly given recent controversies that have occasionally plagued the contest. For example, issues surrounding voting integrity or the political messaging of certain entries have caused friction in the past. This development highlights the complex interplay of culture, finance, and politics that often underpins major international events, demonstrating how external pressures and internal considerations can significantly impact even seemingly apolitical and culturally unifying competitions like Eurovision. Further information from the EBU or the withdrawing nations would be required to ascertain the precise and individual reasons behind each country’s decision, but collectively, it suggests a challenging period for the long-running musical extravaganza.
9. Ghana’s Ibrahim Mahama Becomes First African to Lead Annual Global Art Power List, Signaling Shift in Art World Influence
Origin: Ghana
In a groundbreaking announcement, Ghanaian artist Ibrahim Mahama has achieved a historic milestone by becoming the first African artist to top a prominent annual global art power list. This recognition not only celebrates Mahama’s individual artistic prowess but also signifies a notable shift in the international art world’s focus and influence.
Background: For many years, the global art market, its influential critics, and its most recognized figures were largely concentrated in Western art capitals such as New York, London, Paris, and Berlin. Curatorial perspectives, institutional collections, and market valuations often reflected a Eurocentric bias, overlooking or marginalizing significant artistic contributions from other regions. However, the past two decades have witnessed a profound and accelerating recognition of artists from diverse regions, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America. This shift is driven by increasing globalization, concerted efforts to decolonize art history and museum collections, and a greater appreciation for varied cultural narratives, aesthetic expressions, and social commentaries from non-Western perspectives. Ibrahim Mahama, born in 1987, is widely recognized for his large-scale installations, often utilizing reclaimed materials such as jute sacks, which have been repurposed from their original function as containers for commodities like cocoa or coal. His work explores complex themes of commodity exchange, migration, globalization, post-colonialism, and the residual impacts of historical trade routes in Ghana. His installations often challenge conventional notions of art and commerce, frequently engaging with specific architectural sites and local communities, thereby embedding his art deeply within its social and political context.
Current Status & Root Causes: Mahama’s ascent to the top of a major art power list in December 2025 is a powerful testament to the increasing visibility, critical acclaim, and market strength for contemporary African art. It reflects a broader, ongoing trend where leading art institutions, influential curators, and sophisticated collectors worldwide are actively seeking out and valuing perspectives that extend beyond traditional Western canons. This signifies not just a diversification of the art market but a genuine re-evaluation of what constitutes ‘important’ or ‘powerful’ art in the 21st century. The root causes of this phenomenon include concerted efforts by African artists and cultural institutions themselves to gain international recognition, often through participation in major biennials and global art fairs. Furthermore, there’s a growing influence of art biennials and fairs in non-Western locations (e.g., Dak’Art, Venice Biennale’s increasing African presence) and a global audience’s increasing appetite for diverse, socially engaged, and politically resonant artistic practices. This achievement not only elevates Mahama’s individual profile and potentially boosts the market for his work but also shines a brighter spotlight on the vibrant, dynamic, and critically important contemporary art scene across the entire African continent, paving the way for future generations of artists and fostering a more equitable and representative global art landscape.
10. Agentic AI Technology Development Accelerates, Raising Ethical and Societal Questions
Origin: Global (Technology Industry)
The year 2025 has witnessed an unprecedented acceleration in the development of agentic Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, characterized by AI systems capable of autonomous action, learning, and self-improvement. While promising revolutionary advancements, this rapid progress is simultaneously intensifying critical ethical and societal debates.
Background: Artificial Intelligence has been a rapidly evolving field for decades, progressing from early symbolic AI to machine learning and, more recently, deep learning. Agentic AI represents a significant conceptual and technological leap beyond traditional AI systems, where systems are designed not just to perform specific tasks based on predefined rules or patterns but to operate independently, set their own sub-goals, make decisions, and achieve complex objectives in dynamic and uncertain environments without constant human oversight. This involves advanced reasoning, planning, self-correction, and adaptive capabilities, often leveraging reinforcement learning and large language models. The foundational research and development in this area have been ongoing for several years, with breakthroughs in areas like natural language processing, computer vision, and robotics contributing to the emergence of more sophisticated autonomous agents that can interact with the real world. The development of powerful computational infrastructure and the exponential growth of available data have served as critical enablers for this acceleration, allowing for the training of increasingly complex and capable AI models.
Current Status & Root Causes: As of December 2025, agentic AI is no longer a theoretical concept but is manifesting in various applications across industries. This includes advanced autonomous robotics capable of complex manufacturing or exploration tasks, sophisticated decision-making systems in finance and logistics, and increasingly capable virtual assistants that can manage intricate personal and professional responsibilities with minimal human intervention. This acceleration is driven by significant investments from tech giants, venture capitalists, and national governments recognizing the strategic importance of AI, coupled with continuous academic research advancements and the growing availability of computational power and vast datasets. However, alongside the excitement about revolutionary potential, there are profound and intensifying concerns. Ethical questions revolve around accountability for autonomous AI actions, the potential for bias in AI-driven decision-making systems, the risks of misuse (e.g., in autonomous weapons systems), and the pervasive impact on employment across various sectors. Societal questions include the urgent need for robust regulatory frameworks, ensuring equitable access to these powerful technologies, managing the potential for job displacement, and navigating the long-term implications for human agency, control, and the very nature of work and creativity. The root cause of the current heightened debate lies in the technology’s approaching maturity and its potential to fundamentally reshape industries, economies, and daily life on an unprecedented scale, necessitating urgent, proactive, and global consideration of its governance and responsible deployment to harness its benefits while mitigating its profound risks.